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From farm to fuel: Cumulative energy demand and biofuel potential of major plant protein sources
This study compared the cumulative energy demand of major plant-based protein sources and their theoretical biofuel recovery potential based on the starch and oil content of harvested grains and seeds. Cereals showed the lowest allocated CED for the protein fraction, 0.29–0.51 MJ/kg dry matter, but required 31.3–51.9 MJ/kg protein when expressed per unit of pure protein. In contrast, legumes and green biomass were more efficient protein sources, requiring 6.8–22.9 and 15.3 MJ/kg protein, respectively. Cereals also provided the highest ethanol recovery potential, approximately 9.8–10.2 MJ/kg dry matter. Oilseeds showed strong biodiesel potential, with sunflower seed reaching 22.23 MJ/kg dry matter and exhibiting the best net energy balance (14.42 MJ/kg) among the crops examined. Overall, cereals are most suitable for integrated food-energy systems, legumes and green biomass for protein-focused applications, and oilseeds for biodiesel-oriented biorefinery strategies.