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A Frame-based methodology for lexical typology
На примере глаголов плавания индонезийского языка показывается, что грамматические и семантические свойства глаголов могут определяться их положением в иерархиях, аналогичных иерархии одушевленности и другим иерархиям топикальности/индивидуации, которые используются при описании имен.
The article deals, in a typological perspective, with verbs describing sounds of inanimate objects (cf. the noise of a door being opened, of coins in somebody’s pocket, of a river, etc.). The analysis is based on the data from four languages (Russian, German, Komi-Zyrjan, Khanty), which were obtained from dictionaries, corpora and field investigation. We discuss, first, the primary meanings of these verbs and identify the parameters that underlie semantic distinctions between them (type of sound source and its features, type of situation causing the emission of a sound, acoustic properties of sounds). Then we consider the derived meanings of sound verbs, which are developed through metonymic and metaphoric shifts and analyze the mechanisms behind each of these shifts. Finally, we examine a type of semantic change in our data which cannot be explained in terms of either of those mechanisms and hence represents a separate kind of meaning shift.
Цель настоящей работы – исследовать и сопоставить основные фреймы, реконструируемые двумя ведущими американскими демократическими и республиканскими лидерами во время президентской кампании 2012 года. Представляется крайне актуальным проследить взаимосвязь между языковыми и ментальными структурами в современном американском политическом дискурсе. Анализ корпуса монологических и диалогических высказываний Б. Обамы и М. Ромни с применением когнитивной теории метафоры позволяет выявить базовые концепты американской нации, к которым апеллируют ведущие современные политики. Так, изучение корпуса текстов, входящих в предвыборный дискурс 2012 года, демонстрирует, что высказанная выдающимся лингвистом и политическим консультантом Дж. Лакоффом в 2004 году идея противопоставить республиканской модели ГОСУДАРСТВО ЕСТЬ СТРОГИЙ ОТЕЦ демократическую модель ГОСУДАРСТВО ЕСТЬ ЗАБОТЛИВЫЙ РОДИТЕЛЬ оказывается полностью реализованной в риторике Б. Обамы.
Статья включает детальное описание богатой системы выражения передвижения в воде в индонезийском языке.
Temperature phenomena are universal, relatively easily perceptible by humans and crucial for them, but their conceptualisation involves a complex interplay between external reality, bodily experience and evaluation of the relevant properties with regard to their functions in the human life. The meanings of temperature terms are, thus, both embodied and perspectival. Rather than reflecting the external world objectively, they offer a naïve picture of it, permeated with folk theories that are based on people’s experience and rooted in their culture (cultural models). Languages differ as to how many temperature terms they have and how these categorize the temperature domain in general Closely related languages can show remarkable differences in their uses of temperature adjectives, even when these are cognates to each other; conversely, temperature systems can show remarkable areal patterns. Temperature terms can belong to different word classes, even within one and the same language (adjectives – ”cold”, verbs – ”to freeze”, nouns – ”coldness”). Languages vary in their word-class attribution of temperature concepts: thus, for instance, many languages lack temperature adjectives. Word-class attribution and, further, lexicalization of temperature expressions and the possible syntactic constructions in which they can be used are sensitive to their semantics.
Temperature meanings are often semantically related to other meanings, either synchronically (within a polysemantic lexeme) or diachronically. Thus, temperature concepts often serve as source domains for various metaphors and are extended to other perceptional modalities (‘hot spices’, ‘warm colour’). Temperature meanings can also develop from others, e.g., ‘burn, fire’ >’hot’, or ’ice’ > ’cold’. Finally, the meanings of temperature terms can also change within the temperature domain itself, e.g. ‘warm, hot’ > ‘lukewarm’, as in Lat. tep- ‘warm’ vs. English tepid ‘lukewarm’. While some languages show extensive semantic derivation from the temperature domain, others lack it or use it to a limited degree. Languages vary as to which temperature term has predominantly positive associations in its extended use (cf. ‘cold’ in Wolof vs. ‘warm’ in the European languages), partly due to the different climatic conditions.
Temperature terms have, on the whole, received relatively little attention. Cross-linguistic research on temperature is mainly restricted to Sutrop (1998, 1999) and Plank (2003), which focus on how many basic temperature terms there are in a language and how they carve up the domain among themselves. There has been no cross-linguistic research on the grammatical behaviour of temperature expressions, apart from a few mentions.
In theoretical semantics, temperature adjectives have mainly figured in discussions of lexical fields, antonymy and linguistic scales (cf. Lehrer 1970, Cruse & Togia 1995, Sutrop 1998, cf. also Clausner & Croft 1999). Koptjevskaja-Tamm & Rakhilina 2006 suggest that linguistic categorization of the temperature domain is sensitive to several parameters, that are important and salient for humans and can be distinguishable by simple procedures relating to the human body. Within the Natural-Semantic Metalanguage, Goddard & Wierzbicka (2006) propose the general formula for describing the language-specific meanings of temperature terms via reference to fire.
Extended uses of temperature words have been studied indirectly in cognitive linguistics, primarily in research on the metaphors underlying emotions, e.g. AFFECTION IS WARMTH (Lakoff & Johnson 1997:50) and ANGER IS HEAT (Kövecses 1995, also Goossens 1998; cf. also Shindo 1998-99). An important question raised in Geeraerts & Grondelaers (1995) is to what degree such extensions reflect universal metaphorical patterns or are based on common cultural traditions. The current empirical evidence for the suggested metaphors is still relatively meagre.
В настоящей статье приводится анализ русских предлогов под и из-под в темпоральных конструкциях.
В сборнике представлены результаты системного лексико-типологического исследования, выполненного на широком языковом материале: на основе единой анкеты описана семантическая зона движения и нахождения в воде (зона плавания, или aquamotion) для более чем сорока языков, представляющих самые разные языковые семьи и ареалы — славянские, балтийские, романские, германские, уральские, тюркские, семитские, кавказские, африканские и др.
Статьи написаны специалистами по соответствующим языкам на материале полевых и корпусных исследований. Выделены семантические параметры, типологически значимые для зоны плавания, установлены основные типы метафорических переходов в данной области.
Описаны общие принципы построения семантической типологии, которые могут быть применены к любому лексическому материалу.
Книга адресована широкому кругу лингвистов, в первую очередь специалистам по семантике и типологии.