?
The dark and bright sides of being alone: Moderators and covariates of general loneliness
Background: Solitude is often associated with loneliness and is therefore commonly viewed as a negative state,
despite studies showing its potential benefits. Drawing on existential and self-determination theory perspectives,
we propose a Prism Model in which attitudes toward solitude – Solitude Intolerance and Solitude Appreciation –
measured using the Differential Test of Aloneness moderate the associations of General Loneliness with wellbeing
and affect following solitude.
Methods: Two cross-sectional online studies in samples of U.S. adults (N = 408 and N = 266, of whom 169 reported
solitude in the preceding 24 h and were included in the hypothesis tests) examined whether attitudes
toward solitude moderated the associations of General Loneliness with well-being and affect, controlling for
dispositional autonomy and autonomous and controlled motivation for solitude.
Results: In Study 1, Solitude Intolerance moderated the negative association between General Loneliness and
well-being, whereas Solitude Appreciation did not. In Study 2, Solitude Intolerance moderated the associations of
General Loneliness with well-being, high-arousal positive affect, and low-arousal positive affect, but not with
negative affect. Solitude Appreciation moderated only the loneliness–well-being association. Significant interactions
accounted for modest increments in explained variance.
Conclusions: Contrary to prediction, the negative association between General Loneliness and well-being was
weaker at higher levels of Solitude Intolerance. This finding suggests underlying processes that may buffer people
from the negative impact of loneliness, though a buffering effect must be explicitly tested using appropriate
methodologies. Although not the focus, motivation for solitude accounted for variance in all outcomes. Future
longitudinal and experimental research should examine the processes underlying these findings and explore the
utility of positive solitude interventions targeting attitudes and motivation in helping to cope with loneliness.