Balancing autonomy and efficiency: how learner control shapes cognitive load and online learning outcomes

Interactive Learning Environments. 2026. Vol. 34. No. 4. P. 2609–2630.

Gorbunova A., Kseniia Adamovich, Savelyev A., Costley J.

This study examines the tradeoff between learner autonomy and efficiency in optimizingonline instructional design. While learner control is known to enhance personalizationand engagement, it may also increase cognitive demands and learning time,potentially compromising efficiency. To investigate this issue, we conducted anexperimental study comparing low and high levels of learner control across keydimensions: pace, place, content, and sequence. A total of 135 students participated,with one group following a fixed path (low learner control) and another navigating aflexible sequence (high learner control). Learning efficiency was assessed throughengaged time, self-reported cognitive load, and performance outcomes. The resultsshowed that the fixed path group achieved similar performance levels andexperienced similar cognitive load levels to the flexible sequence group, whilerequiring significantly less time. These findings suggest that while learner controloffers potential benefits, excessive autonomy may not lead to improved outcomes,moreover reduced learner control can lead to comparable performance and cognitiveload outcomes with lower time investment. This supports the design of moreefficient, less customizable online learning environments. This study contributes tothe ongoing discussion about the design of adaptive learning systems by highlightingtime as a critical component of instructional efficiency.

Keywords: эффективность обучения, instructional design, online learning, cognitive load, learning efficiency, когнитивная нагрузка, педагогический дизайн, онлайн обучение, learner control, самостоятельный контроль

Publication based on the results of: Using digital traces to study learners' behavioral strategies (2025)